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Introduction to Islam
To begin this lecture, which I feel privileged to deliver at the
invitation of ACOR, and before a distinguished group of American
academics, I would like to juxtapose two inclinations or
proclivities that have deep roots in both Western and Islamic
civilization. The first inclination or method of conduct and
reasoning is embodied in the Platonic approach to attaining truth
and wisdom, namely through a narrative of dialogue, debate and
critical assessment of intellectual propositions- and thus, the
monumental edifice of wisdom bequeathed by Socrates and Plato to
humanity which was firmly underpinned by dialogical and dialectical
method. The second inclination that is enshrined in Islamic thought
and civilization likewise fosters the attainment of truth and wisdom
through peaceful and reasoned dialogue: And here I quote a verse
from the Holy Qur`an which epitomizes this attitude: “Call to the
path of your Lord with wisdom and fair exhortation, and dispute with
them in the best manner. Surely your Lord knows best those who are
perverse from His path, and He best knows the guided..” (H. Qur`an
16:125)
An Introduction to Islam is too vast a challenge to be undertaken in
a single lecture. Hence, my approach shall rest on treating certain
themes which may contain some, rather selective, elucidation of the
creedal, epistemological, doctrinal and historical premises of
Islam.
The early manifestation of Islam was in the 7th century A.D. in
Mecca, western Arabia. The biography of the Prophet Muhammad (or the
Sira) relates that on one night during the month of Ramadan, the
Arch Angel Gabriel visited the Prophet in his retreat on a desert
hill that is contiguous to Mecca (Mount Hira), and inaugurated the
revelation of Islam to him by his command to Muhammad when he was in
slumber or in a trance: “Read!” He said: “I cannot read.” The voice
again said: “Read”! He said: “ I cannot read.” A third time the
voice commanded: “Read!” He said: “What can I read?”
To which Gabriel said:
“Read: In the name of thy Lord Who createth. Createth man from a
clot. Read: And it is thy Lord the Most Bountiful, Who teacheth by
the pen, Teacheth man that which he knew not.”
Muhammad, son of Abdullah, son of Abdul Muttalib, of the illustrious
tribe of Quraish, was born in the small oasis town of Mecca in the
year 570. Given that his father passed away prior to his birth, he
was taken care of by his grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, and after the
latter’s death by his uncle Abu Taleb. It is related in the Sira
that he, as a child, traveled in the company of his uncle in the
merchant’s caravan to Syria, and a few years later undertook the
same journey on behalf of a wealthy widow named Khadijah. So
exemplary was his conduct, and so profitable, that Khadijah proposed
to marry him, although he was fifteen years younger than she.
The people of Mecca considered themselves descendants of Abraham
through Ishmael, while tradition held that their sanctuary, the
Ka`ba, had been built by Abraham for the worship of the One God.
However, decay and corruption in the religious practices and beliefs
of the Arabians crept in, and the monotheism of the patriarch
Abraham was supplanted by paganism and idolatrous worship. In
pre-Islamic Arabia, the Ka`aba was called the house of Allah.
However, the objects of worship were several idols such as Lat and `Uzza,
which were considered daughters of Allah and were believed to
possess intercessory powers. In addition to the presence of
Christian and Jewish communities in Arabia, there existed a group of
monotheists who longed for the faith of Abraham, and these were
known as Hunafa (sing. Hanif) which came to mean “upright”. The
Hunafa of pre-Islamic Arabia did not constitute a single community
per se, but were individuals yearning and seeking truth through
contemplation, moral excellence and spiritual pursuit. It is
historically attested that Muhammad was one of the hunafa, and that
he had rejected all forms of idolatry prior to the revealed
dispensation.
The Arabian peninsula during the time of Muhammad was living on the
margin of civilization to the south of both Byzantium and Persia,
both of which were the major empires of that age, and which were in
intermittent conflict in the Middle East region. . The major portion
of Arabia was arid steppe and desert which were dotted with small
oases. The majority of Arabians were nomads whose source of material
sustenance was raiding other tribes and tending their herds. There
were also a few agriculturally supported communities such as Yathrib,
or Medina (the city of the Prophet). A few towns, among which was
Mecca, prospered from the trade passing from the Mediterranean world
to the East. On the cultural plain, the Arabians had a common
identity that was fostered by a rich literary-poetic tradition but
did not have, against the background of the tribal constitution of
Arabia, a centralized state.
The preaching of Muhammad led to the conversion of some relatives
and other Meccans.- especially among the downtrodden of Mecca. Owing
to Islam’s opposition to idolatry and its equalitarian message, the
enmity of Quraish was increasingly evoked. The persecution of the
Muslim coverts was undertaken which led to a group of Muslims
migrating to Ethiopia. It is recounted in the Sira that the Muslims
migrated to Ethiopia journey there by virtue of a belief that it was
ruled by a just Christian king, the Negus.
The opportunity presented itself to Muhammad to preach his message
to individuals from the town of Yathrib which is located in the
Hejaz, over 400 km north of Mecca. The majority of the people of
Medina eventually embraced Islam and accepted Muhammad as the
Messenger of Allah and arbitrator. The year 622 AD. in which the
Prophet and his companion Abu Bakr- who was to become Islam’s first
Caliph- migrated to Yathrib inaugurated the Muslim or Hijri
calendar. In effect, Medina became the center of the Islamic call (da`wa),
and in it the Prophet became judge, ruler, preacher and military
commander all at once. Without doubt, during the years of the
Prophet’s sojourn in Medinah the content of the message of Islam
changed from having an exclusive emphasis on monotheistic tenets,
eschatology and ethical exhortations, to dealing with secular and
legislative themes underpinned by a perpetual focus on tawhid
(monotheism).
To give a sample of the Qur`anic revelation from the Meccan period,
which must have had a mesmerizing effect on the Meccans, as it does
on modern Arabs and Muslims, the following is quoted from the Qur`an:
The theme is inexorably the day of judgment and resurrection
combined with allusions to social injustice and oppression pervading
Meccan society:
“When the sun is coiled up, and when the stars become grimy, and
when the mountains are set in motion, and when the pregnant camels
are discarded, and when the wild beasts are mustered, and when the
seas simmer, and when the souls are reunited, and when the
girl-child buried alive is asked, for what reason was she slain, and
when the pages are spread open, and when the heaven is expunged, and
when Al-Jahim (hellfire) is set ablaze, and when the garden is
brought near, every soul will then know what it has wrought. Nay, I
swear by the slinking planets, the running planets covered by
sunbeams, and the night when it darkens, and when the dawn when it
breathes; it is indeed the speech of a gracious Messenger.” (Quran
81: 1-19)
After a prolonged process of warfare, proselytizing and struggle
Muhammad and the Muslim community achieved hegemony over most of
Arabia. In fact, even Mecca surrendered to the authority of Islam
and the Ka`aba was purified of idols and idol-worship. In effect,
the achievements of Muhammad were monumental: he established a state
that unified Arabia, he brought a revealed book to the Muslims which
became the paradigm and guide for millions upon millions of Muslims
until today, and he provided the impetus for the creation of a
civilization that was to encompass a vast geographical expanse
stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, from Africa and
Europe to China and Indonesia- and likewise, an astounding variety
of races and ethnic groups that assimilated into the melting pot of
the universal culture of Islam, belonging to a single community –umma-
and bound by a common faith.
It is worthy of mention that the word ‘Muslim’ is the active
participle of the verb Islam which literally denotes surrender i.e.
human surrender to the One God, unique Lord of the worlds, Creator,
sustainer and restorer of the world, and to His Will enshrined in
the doctrines, laws and precepts of Islam. Furthermore, Islam or
surrender likewise entails submission to and belief in Muhammad as
the Messenger of God and seal of the Prophets. Hence, the Will of
Allah is knowable through the H. Qur`an as well as the Sunna which
contains the sayings (hadith) and actions of Muhammd, and which
represents an expounding and elaboration of the principal
revelational element, namely, the Qur`an- which literally means
recitation or reading.
According to Muslim belief, Muhammad is the final of a series of
Prophets and apostles spanning the totality of history, among whom
are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus whose messages are
identical in terms of doctrine, but may differ in points of law and
legislative precepts. Thus the more recent revelation vouchsafed by
God to a messenger may abrogate the legislative precepts of a
previous legislation.
The fundamental article of Muslim faith is represented in the ‘shahadah’,
or the Muslim confession of faith: ‘There is no god but Allah and
Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.’ As a corollary to this
testimony are a core set of beliefs or doctrines: namely, a belief
in God; angels; the revealed books, namely, the Torah, the Psalms,
the Gospel; belief in the prophets; belief in the last day, or the
day of Judgment; belief in providence, or predestination.
As a consequence of the foregoing creed, a Muslim must also observe
a set of duties, characterized as faraid or duties by the Muslim
jurists (the fuqaha): 5 daily prayers (salat ar.) , a welfare tax
called zakat, fasting from daybreak until sunset during the month of
Ramadan (siyam), and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). All of these
religious observances including the profession of faith are
considered the five pillars of Islam. It may be noted that the
foregoing religious duties are characterized by an individual as
well as a communal dimension. To illustrate this point, one may
mention that prayer is more laudably carried out in group forms of
worship. Again, fasting in Ramadan is undertaken by all able
Muslims, and is thus both an individual and collective form of
worship. This epitomizes something that is intrinsic in Islam-
namely, its balancing between the individual and the collectivity
within the context of a community: to use Qur`anic terms, the best
nation ever raised among mankind, enjoining good and forbidding
evil.
As earlier mentioned, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos in
Medina as embodying both the temporal and spiritual dimensions, with
its law regulating both the individual’s relation to God as well as
human interrelationships in a social environment and setting, Thus,
unlike Western Christendom, there does not exist in Islam a
religious institution that is independent of a temporal dimension.
The fact is, that the two dimensions coalesce, and the
aforementioned religious duties have both an individual significance
as well as a communal one. It may be mentioned that the experience
of modern Turkey insofar as the separation of church and state so to
speak, represents a novelty in the venture of Islam- a novelty that
has also been embraced by many secular Arab and Muslim thinkers and
statesmen in the preceding century and the present one. In the
intellectual and social ferment of Arab and Muslim society, the
relation between religious identity and authority on the one hand,
and the temporal or worldly plain continues to animate vigorous
debate- perhaps even antagonism- as it does in Western societies.
Hence, recently we witnessed the heated debate and emotions
engendered by the French government’s decision to ban the
Islamically enjoined hijab (or head scarf) based on the premise that
it violated the secular premises of the French Republic.
Sources of Doctrine
Although as a consequence of the stunning and rapid expansion of the
domain of Islam, the cultures of Greece, Byzantium and Persia had a
considerable influence on the fabric of the nascent Islamic
civilization, the early piety-minded individuals and scholars
assured the Islamic underpinnings of doctrine and law. The legists
postulated that Islamic doctrine and law should be based on four
sources or fundamental principles (usul): the Quran, the Sunna
traditions, ijma`a or consensus, and ijtihad or qiyas (independent
mental exertion and analogical reasoning respectively).
The Quran, the uncreated speech of God, as it is regarded by
orthodox theology, constitutes the principal source of doctrine and
law. It is divided into 114 Surahs or Chapters of unequal length. To
reiterate, the Qur`an revealed in Mecca primarily address the
monotheistic imperative, so to speak, as well as ethical and
spiritual and eschatological tenets and teachings. By contrast, the
Surahs revealed in the Medinan period are more concerned with social
legislation and politico-moral principles necessary for the tasks of
ordering the Muslim community.
The Sunna, or the well-trodden path as it may literally mean, which
had its precursor in the pre-Islamic tribal custom, came to mean in
the context of Islam, the words and deeds and example of the Prophet
Muhammad. Moreover, the Hadith is a report of a saying attributed to
Muhammad. In orthodox Islam, there exist six great compilations of
Hadith (al-sihah al-sitt – or the six authentic works) which were
done in the 3rd Century Hijri (9th century A.D.) and which acquired
great authority among Islam’s orthodox community, the sunnis, who
constitute the majority of Muslims.
The ijma`a of the community (denoting consensus) is a source of
Islamic law and dogma. A tradition attributed to the Prophet reports
Muhammad as saying “My community shall not agree on an error’. Thus,
consensus, probably developed as a juridical vehicle in the 2nd
century Hijri/8th Century A.D. manifested an effort to standardize
legal practice and theory and to transcend disputes and differences
on points of law and theology.
Finally , ijtihad (the exertion of oneself) was originally
categorized as ‘ra`y or opinion. However, in order to mitigate the
emergence of vast differences in the opinions of Muslims, ra`y
became qiyas (reasoning by strict analogy) which was a derivation of
legal principles (ahkam) from the two primary sources of the
Shari`ah (Islamic law) by means of analogical reasoning or
deduction.
In effect, ijma`a played a conservative role in the Muslim
intellectual tradition, given that it delineated the space of
intellectual creation. The saying that the door of ijtihad was
closed is a famous one. However, throughout Islamic history there
have been efforts at intellectual regeneration represented by, for
example, the great mystic-theologian Al-Ghazali (d.1111) who
reappraised the edifice of orthodoxy, reformulated it in spiritually
and intellectually vigorous terms, while at the same time adhering
to the accepted parameters of the Quran and the Sunna. In modern
times, there have been sporadic calls for the reopening of the gate
of ijtihad by Arab and Muslim thinkers and reformers of various
philosophical and political orientations.
In addition to the four sources of Islamic law mustered by legists
to derive legal principles, there have been others which were
articulated by the protagonists of the four major surviving Islamic
schools of law, historically founded by Abu Hanifa, Malik, Shafi`I
and Ibn Hanbal. It may be noted that the Maliki school of
jurisprudence is dominant in North and West Africa, the Hanafi in
Turkic Asia, the Shafii in Egypt, East Africa and South East Asia,
and the Hanbali in Saudi Arabia. It also may be remarked, in this
context, that the legists formulated five categories regarding the
actions of humans: obligatory, meritorious, permissible,
reprehensible and forbidden. Thus, with respect to any aspect of
human conduct, whether in terms of ritual, or economic activity, or
marriage etc.- the fuqaha state, based on the four sources of the
law, whether the action is halal, haram, mustahab, makruh, or mubah.
While differences between these schools of jurisprudence exist they
coalesce on the fundamentals of Islamic doctrine and law, and
complementarity is the defining feature of their reality.
Doctrine:
The Indian philosopher Muhammad Iqbal remarked something to the
effect that the ancient Greek mindset emphasized cognition through
reasoning more than through an experience and apprehension of
nature. Within the context of the Islamic view of God, it is
undoubtedly the case that the Islamic method of inculcating the
monotheistic view of God and life underlines reference to nature and
the universe and man himself as vehicles for knowing God. This may
be contrasted to a method that emphasizes metaphysical speculation
and that attempts to unravel metaphysical or unseen reality through
philosophical reflection- and not through empirical observation that
ontologically ties contingent created existence, to a unique
Creator.
To illustrate the apprehension of monotheistic truth through a human
striving for enlightened consciousness of God and the universe I
shall read for you the following Qur`anic verses describing
Abraham’s attainment of monotheistic faith by means of reflection on
nature and the Universe:
“And thus did We show Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the
earth that he might be of those possessing credulity. And when night
spread out over him he saw a star. He then said, “This is my Lord.”
But when it set, he said, “I love not things that set.” When he saw
the moon rising, he said, “If God does not guide me, I shall surely
be among the perverse folk.” Then when he saw the sun rising he
said. “This is my Lord. This is greater.” But when it set, he said.
“O my people, I am free from that which you associate with God.”
(6:75-78)
To quote Muhammad Mubarak, the late Syrian thinker, in this context:
“Thus, Abraham arrived (at a monotheistic) conviction as a result of
personal reflection and (spiritual) experience. He despaired of
ascribing divinity to any aspect of the Universe since those
aspects, or phenomena, are subject to change and eclipse. Abraham
declares the result of his quest by saying: And here Mubarak quotes
the Qur`an:
“I have directed my face toward Him who originated the heavens and
the earth, as a hanif (an upright believer in God), and I am not of
the idolaters.” (6:79)
In essence, Islam espouses a rigorously monotheistic view of God.
The Qur`an rebukes associating or ascribing partners to God. He is
One, without beginning or end, the Lord of the worlds and their
sustainer. Islam’s condemnation of idolatrous worship is
categorical, while it considers the Christian Trinitarian doctrine
as a deviation from the true monotheism taught by the
Judeo-Christian Prophets, including Jesus Christ. Having said that
it must be remembered that Islam regards with high esteem the
Christian people of the book (Ahl Al-Kitab), and affirms
considerable parts of the Christian dispensation which Islam claims
to have completed. It could be mentioned that belief in the Gospel
and in Jesus the son of Mary is part of the Muslim creed, as is the
miraculous immaculate conception of Jesus.
Historically speaking, the pristine faith of the early generation of
Muslims in the One God was subject to considerable debate among
jurists, theologians, mystics and philosophers. The transcendental
God with attributes knowable through the Qur`an and the Sunna, under
the influence of Greek metaphysics, or eastern mysticism, gave way
to conceptions of God which detracted from a clear-cut, categorical
monotheism. Existential monism, philosophical pantheism and sufi
esoteric doctrines sometimes transfigured the parameters of
monotheistic doctrine. Thus, Sunni orthodox theologians strove,
mustering scriptural as well as rational proofs derived from Greek
philosophy and logic, to maintain a doctrine about God that is based
on exoteric- as opposed to esoteric exegesis, that is rooted in
rational evidences, and that does not necessarily repudiate the
insights of mysticism. Al-Ghazali, perhaps more than anyone else
epitomizes the foregoing.
Allow me to share with you a poem I wrote that conveys a
monotheistic perspective and conveys my sense of seeking the Divine:
Travels Beyond:
The mystic traveler has a tryst with truth
A moment of joyous love of God
He sees naught but His cosmic presence
Nearer to the heart than the jugular vein
Knowledge of God is an endless trail
To be trodden with yearning for more
Dazzled is a heart of a praising soul
The universe a sign of the Great Lord
But a dazzled heart must be from sin washed
Pondering the truth that encompasses all
The journey to know has a weapon to use
A Shari`ah that’s God’s guide to spirit’s trek
Subhanallah is the utterance of a heart consumed
The calling to fear an Omniscient God
The traveler meets His Lord even at a labyrinth
Dhikr that nears him to God’s unknowable mercy
Life is a canyon of pleasure immense
Matching dhikr is unattainable quest
Afterlife is the soothing thought of penitent hearts
Paradise the splendid abode of an awaited morrow
And hellfire the fear of a heart torn
Grief at the sins of a youthful day
Love of Muhammad is the tune of wondrous worship
Peace on him the guide of knowing souls
A haqiqa of amazing surrender
A repository of Revelation Divine
God’s Word anchored in Muhammad’s radiant heart
Uncreated speech of truth and love
Ahmad the guide and mercy to every world
Illumining darkness with shining truth
The traveler years for Ahmad to know his Lord
Following the exemplar of obedience to God
Journeyers of noble though unrested souls
Finding a truth beyond reason’s bound
The kings may strike the saints with swords
If only they knew the pleasures of dhikr’s way
Islam’s View of the Universe:
The universe, according to Islam, is created and originated by God.
He is the sovereign in the universe who both expands and terminates
it in his apportioned time. Hence, all the laws (sunan ar.) that
pervade the universe are under His hegemony. If He should so will,
he may terminate the effect of those laws- though they are invariant
and unchanging. Existence is an orderly cosmos and not a chaos.
The Qur`an continually enjoins people to reflect on and discover
nature and the universe. Although the scientific spirit has receded
in the later ages of Islam, it is very positively depicted in the
Qur’an; nevertheless, it is a scientific spirit that repudiates
paganism and that portrays the world as being a manifestation of
Divine sovereignty: To quote from the Qur’an:
“May He be glorified, for whatever is in the heavens and the earth
is His, all are submissive to Him.” (2:116)
It is not surprising, hence, that through the encounter with other
civilizations, Muslim scholars, scientists and thinkers were in the
main not reluctant to assimilate the knowledge of those
civilizations, to creatively develop it, but also to intermesh it
with the fundamental paradigms and worldview of Islam. It should be
mentioned, however, that there existed varied orientations among
Muslims vis a vis external culture, ranging from the zealots to the
herodians, to use the terms of the British historian Toynbee. For
instance, the philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Al-Kindi,
Ibn Rushd and others were deeply influenced by and very positively
disposed toward Greek philosophy and science, while the 13th century
theologian, Ibn Taymiya, repudiated Greek philosophy and logic as
having exercised an insidious influence on Muslim scholastic
theology, or to use its Arabic term Ilm Al-Kalam.
To prove the existence and unity of God the Qur`an perennially
highlights the order and design of the universe. Each created thing
is endowed with a definite and defined nature which constitute an
ordered form of existence. However, everything is limited in both
the theology and cosmology of the Qur`an. All created things have an
inherent nature and are subject to laws of behavior that God endowed
them with. The Qur`an states: “Everything has been created by us
according to a measure”. All existence is contingent and finite, and
it is God alone who is self-sufficient, necessarily existent and
unlimited.
Islam’s View of Man
In Islam’s view, God created two distinct species: namely, humankind
and the jinn. The former was created from clay and the latter from
fire. The descent of Adam and Eve due to their eating from the
forbidden tree as a consequence of Satan’s deception- a story
already occurring in the Judeo-Christian tradition- is related in
the Qur’an. However, the Christian doctrine of original sin is not
affirmed, as God accepted the repentance of Adam and Eve and made
mankind His vicegerents on earth. To quote from the Qur`an:
“When your Lord said to the angels, ‘I am setting on earth a
vice-regent,’ they said, ‘Will you place therein one who will act
corruptly in it and shed blood, while we extol Your praise and
sanctify You?” (2:30)
Thus, the angels protested to God against man’s creation, but lost
in a competition of knowledge against Adam, who was taught the names
of all things. The Qur`an declares man to be the finest of all
creatures and he willingly bore the trust which the heavens and the
earth refused to bear. All of creation was subjected to man, who by
virtue of the rational faculty with which he was endowed, was
enjoined to, and entrusted with, the development of civilization. In
such endeavor he may be, either righteous or corrupt, a monotheist
or an unbeliever. As the Qur`an affirms, there is no compulsion in
faith and religion; in other words, faith belongs to the domain of
individual freedom and choice. Moreover, life and existence were not
created in vain, but were brought into being so that God is obeyed
and worshipped. Thus, Islam is profoundly teleological while
affirming theodicy in creation.
It must be noted that Islam views human nature as fallible and
faltering- that man is oppressive and prone to ignorance- despite
his lofty station in the universe. By contrast to angels who are
instinctively obedient to God, man is inclined to error. Pride is
the cardinal sin of man- a sin which detracts man from submission to
a unique God, and which makes him ascribe partners to Him. In Islam,
the most heinous of transgressions is shirk or polytheism.
Knowledge, it must be mentioned, is essential for man shouldering
the responsibility of vice-gerency on earth. To reiterate a point
earlier made, the Qur`an emphasizes knowledge of the physical
universe as a means to fulfilling the purpose of God in creation,
namely, worshipping and obeying the Creator. The following two
quotations from the Qur`an are illustrative:
“Have they not seen that We lead the water to the parched land, so
that We bring forth crops from which their cattle and themselves can
eat? Do they not perceive?” (32:27)
“It is He who has spread out the earth, and He placed in it
mountains and rivers, and of every fruit He has made parts therein.
He covers the night with the day. Surely in that are signs for a
people who ponder. And in the earth are tracts neighboring one
another, and gardens of grapes, and plantations, and palm-trees of
one root and of different roots, watered by the same water. And We
distinguish in produce some of them above others. Surely in that are
signs for a people who comprehend”. (13:3,4)
Repentance and Satan and Resurrection:
In the story of the fall of Adam, Satan figures prominently as-
owing to the sin of pride- he refused to honor Adam as God
commanded. Previously, Satan had had an honored standing but became
the nemesis of man. In Islam, the role of Satan is to beguile people
through chicanery until the last day. The role of the Prophets of
God, on the other hand, is to guide people to repentance and the
righteous path. Repentance of people restores them to the state of
sinlessness in which they were born.
It may be deduced from the scriptural texts of Islam- i.e. the
Qur`an and Sunnah- that invariant laws pervade life and the
universe. However, Islam affirms the occurrence of the miraculous as
having been a vindication of the Prophets; thus, Noah was saved from
the deluge, Jesus was immaculately born, Abraham was saved from the
fire, and so forth. Muslim thinkers have dealt with the apparent
contradiction between the invariance of universal laws and the
Qur`an’s recognition of the miraculous event. The received wisdom is
that the invariance of laws prevails in the universe, but God may
intervene to effect exceptional phenomena. It may be mentioned that
the Ash`ari school of theology, which is the dominant one in Sunni
Islam, affirms Divine voluntaristic intervention in the natural
world- and perhaps this was a reaction to the naturalism of the
philosophers who questioned the notion of Divine intervention in
existence- while the Andalusian Ibn Hazm and Ibn Taymiya emphasize
the notion of cause and effect permeating the universe at the behest
of God.
Islam affirms that the dead will be resurrected and that judgment
will be pronounced on every soul. To quote from Surat Al-Zalzalah
which powerfully captures one of the scenes of the day of
resurrection:
“When the earth quakes with a mighty quaking, and the earth casts
forth its burdens, and man says, ‘What ails her? On that day, she
will make known her tidings, that your Lord has revealed to her. On
that day, people will issue forth in concourses to behold their
deeds. So, whoever has done an atom’s weight of good, will behold
it. And whoever has done an atom’s weight of evil, will behold it.
(99:1-8)
A Word On Sufism
Sufism in the modern age has gained prominence in the Western world-
as a philosophy of inward piety, love, compassion, universalism and
religious devotion. In the Islamic historical tradition, its
genealogy is traceable to the acetic and mystical practices of
zuhhad (penitents), such as Al-Hassan Al-Basri (d.801) and Rabi`a
Al-Adawiya, a woman from the city of Basra, whose form of
religiosity underlined love of God as opposed to a yearning for His
reward in paradise or fear of His hellfire.
The term Sufi, it has been asserted by some historians, is related
to the woolen garments worn by some early penitents in the 8th
century/2nd century Hijri. Sufism entails many concepts, two of
which are central, namely tawakkul (trust in God) and dhikr
(remembrance of God). The sufi tradition acquired gnostic elements (ma`rifa)
through the figure of Dhu Al-Nun Al-Misri (d.857). Through the
doctrine of fana`a, or dissolution into the Divine being, Sufism
evoked the criticism of piety-minded orthodox ulama. Al-Hallaj
epitomized the doctrine of fanaa when he declared the heresy of ‘I
am the Truth’ or ‘Ana Al-Haq’, which event led to his execution, a
rare event in the history of Islam- rare to the extent that it was
highly unusual for a Muslim to be killed for his religious beliefs
or scientific research or philosophical speculation; in other words,
perhaps with the exception of period of rule by the Abbasid Caliph
Al-Ma`mun, who sought to impose the Mu`tazili school of thought, the
Islamic tradition did not witness an inquisition.
As earlier mentioned, orthodoxy and Sufism achieved a fusion or
synthesis in the thought of Al-Ghazali, particularly his monumental
work “Ihyaa Ulum Al-Din” “Revival of the Religious Sciences”. Among
subsequent important protagonists of Sufism was Muhieddine Ibn Arabi
(d.1240) whose religiously brilliant thought displayed a marked
pantheistic tendency. In effect, Sufism contributed greatly to the
spread of Islam through its sufi orders into central, south and
southeast Asia and Sub-saharan Africa. It may be noted that the
oldest sufi order was founded by Abdul Qadir Al-Jilani (d.1166), and
other sufi orders including Al-Naqshabandiya, Al-Shadhiliya, Al-Tijaniya
and others.
Many modern reformist jurists, thinkers and theologians have
criticized sufi thought and practices such as saint worship, the
visiting of tombs and extremist predestinarianism.
In this lecture, I have rather selectively dealt with Islam’s
doctrines and worldview in the hope that I may have said something
useful. In the contemporary age of globalization which requires a
global ethic and ethos, I believe Arab and Islamic culture has much
to contribute, not only in spiritual terms, but also in terms of
partaking in the values of democracy, freedom of speech and belief,
respect for human rights, as well as in contributing to achieving
higher thresholds of justice for human societies.
To the claims of Islamophobia that Islam fosters terrorism,
dogmatism and authoritarianism it may be said that the true Islam
represents tolerance, pluralism, humanism and is a message of
goodwill to humanity including the American people, who have been
exposed to extensive myths about Islam and Arab culture, and who
must become aware that certain manifestations of hostility may be
remedied by pursuing greater even-handedness vis a vis the
Arab-Israeli conflict, by showing deeper commitment to Arab
independence, by fostering more actively respect for human rights
and the processes of democratization.
I end my talk to you with a poem I authored describing what is
perhaps the principal theme of Islamic civilization, indeed, in my
view, of human history, that of tawhid or the One God worshipped by
Gentile and Jew, Aryan and Semite, Easterner and Westerner, without
compulsion, without a clash of civilizations, but through dialogue
and purposeful interaction:
Stations of Galaxies
I do not swear by the stations of galaxies
For a question unveils the secret of oath
Does the moon in splendor forever glimmer?
And doesn’t it in complete form recoil to a crescent?
The sun at noon with brilliance shines
But sinks in reddish orange at a distant horizon
The stars illumine a darkness of intense depth
But fade from the view of earthly life
Pyramids stoutly stand with magnificent posture
But are immensely below the nearest cloud
Abraham exclaims revolt at vanishing splendor
Affirming that God is without twilight
I do not swear by the stations of galaxies
For being is conditional on Almighty God
The tallest wave on the shore’s sand breaks
Yielding to numbers of succeeding waves
Michelangelo’s David stuns the viewing eye
Exceeded by the creations of other men of art
The sea waves and earth bow to the Macedonian’s conquest
But death chooses to its side the finest general
Athena makes each citizen a member of the jury
But history’s indomitable verdict is that all have an end
I do not swear by the stations of galaxies
For finite life overwhelms all that lives.
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